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CRISIS OF
"CHINESE MODEL" AND THE "REFORMS"
THE ANATOMY
OF CHINA´S EXPORTS
The
imperialist finance capital was poured into China (41) and set in it an
important link for its monopolistic networks, to obtain super profits by using
china as an "export platform" and that is how the actual occupation
of this economic territory has been. But that does not satisfy or satiate the
domination appetite of the imperialist finance capital; it has its eye put on
the Chinese domestic market, as a new market that is opening for them. That’s
why it increasingly pushes the revisionist bosses. The Imperialist dispute
grows - through their investments and the establishment of their monopolies -,
the imperialist countries seek to beat the competition to take the advantage
position cognizant of the development of this “potential huge market." At
the same time, US imperialism and its other rivals, never lay down its plans to
divide China and will continue trying to boost the internal forces to
dissociate and subvert this vast country fraught with contradictions.
Bourgeois
economists confirm that China cannot invest this great mass of money at home
because of the backwardness of the economy does leave a place for it (42). It´s economy is so irrational that even
before the 2008 crisis; it had problems of overinvestment in different
industries, resulting in a large idle capacity and therefore lower
productivity. The most striking example
is the real estate industry, which has been described as the "Titanic of
the Chinese economy," referring to the large and most modern cruise of
early twentieth century, which sank on its maiden voyage.
The truth
is that, as they are imperialists, these revisionists thugs, are not going to
invest that abundant capital in the development of the country and the welfare
of the masses, but it will be exported looking for super-profits and buying US
Treasuries bonds to keep the relationship dollar-Remin in benefit of their
exports, with which they increase their imperialist rent, the parasitism.
All that we
have said concerning China and its rightful place on the world stage as an
imperialist country is confirmed by what was addressed on this regard on the
last congress of the Chinese revisionist party and the new plans of the Chinese
government to "stop the exportation model" to look for the expansion
of domestic consumption. This, as Chairman Gonzalo teaches us, constitutes a
political proof.
It is necessary to note that after the Teng´s
anti-communist coup, China began the "reforms of the market economy"
against the socialist planned economy, which have developed over a long period
and " firmly took place in the early 90s; Deng Xiaoping's “southern
tour" is a noticeable mark in the economic reforms in China. Such an event
took place in 1992. “(43)
The
revisionist party new leader, just installed, traveled to the US and the countries
of the EU, for what reason? To reassure to the other imperialists that in the
Chinese economic policy there won´t be any fundamental changes. As we have
said, by class nature the Chinese social imperialists are not on behalf of
investing the large earned profits in the development of agriculture, in the
balanced development of the country and in meeting the masses´ needs, on the
contrary, each time they dismiss more people from the countryside to the cities
through economic and extra economic means, to concentrate large armies of
cheap to increase competition among
workers in favor of the imperialist
capital; as all other imperialist they export their capital to more profitable
locations for speculative imperialist super profits overseas.
In the face of the exhaustion of their
"exportation model", the Chinese social imperialists are seeking to
reorganize and develop its banking, finance and general services sector. That
is the core of the current "economic reforms" that the revisionists,
usurping the CPC, have launched, this has been said by diverse analysts.
Pondering
on information:
"With
the 'economic liberalization' during the 80s, the Chinese leaders established
special economic zones in areas such as Shenzhen" (...) where the
materials and components imports free of customs duties was authorized. That
was a great success (...) to meet the global demand for inexpensive clothing
and toys, made in China, in the global workshop ".(44)
We comment:
This led China to its dependence on the world market and its crisis, as a link of the world imperialist
monopolies’ chain, as the current
"exportation model" of assembled products and raw materials -and in
turn importer of intermediate products and raw materials, which has meant big
profits for a handful of the large native and foreign bourgeoisie and has
brought great calamities for the vast majority of the proletariat and people, a
great deformation of the social-imperialist country´s economy and its economic
dependence on the more powerful imperialist countries. It’s important to
remember that the social imperialist Soviet Union became dependent on oil and
gas exports since the late fifties and importer of industrial products and
technology (FDI) and then definitely sank.
Naturally,
this is from the Marxist-Leninist- Maoist Chairmen Gonzalo´s Thought point of
view and position, contrary to that presented by the bourgeois economists in
charge of the imperialist propaganda about the benefits of
"globalization," especially of that group linked to one big investment
banks, who in early 2000s created the
acronym BRIC (after BRICS) which then was repeated by imperialist propaganda
throughout the world, by its bureaucratic capitalism servants in our countries
and revisionism worldwide.
Of these,
the new revisionism, whose main representatives are the rats of both ROLs, as
the sworn enemies of Chairman Gonzalo and Gonzalo Thought,
Marxism-Leninism-Maoism, mainly Maoism worldwide, who keep repeating that
imperialist propaganda despite that reality has shown all its falsity, when its
content is questioned even by imperialism economists, off course linked to the
interests of another imperialist investment bank, Morgan Stanley (45). It is
important to read it, because it makes an accurate assessment of the Chinese
economy growth prospects in the medium and long term.
For
everyone it is clear that this "model" is already worn out. So the
Chinese revisionists are forced to "reforms" that are nothing more
than to "complete" the model followed up to the date. It the scape
forward.
The general
opinion of the bourgeoisie economists on the future of the Chinese economy,
whether they are Keynesian or monetarist, is similar. For example, a supposed neo-Keynesians manifesto argues
that, to save the imperialist world economy, free market must be combined with
the expansive state intervention in the economy and about the 'model' followed
by China they say:
The global
crisis that began in 2008 with a prolonged recession in many parts of the world
and low growth in others, which continues today, was shown "the limits of
that model" and "the impossibility to lead a sustained growth”(46)
Others,
like the note of Wall Street Journal add:
"While
the plan for Shanghai´s FTZ (Free Trade Zone, our note) remains vague, it
essentially combines four existing similar areas in the city and adheres some
services liberalization (...) the old gradual regional experimentation program
of 80 is little adapted to today challenges.
A strong reform agenda is what is needed now."b (47)
This means
that for the US´ finance capital media, the situation in China is at least
difficult, they cannot go halfway. That’s why it is necessary to make out
China's exports anatomy. Which has to do
with the Chinese global economic role in the global economy, as a link in the
chain of the greatest monopolies, "within the global production networks
"as" export platform ",
which explains more than a thousand words the "Chinese economic
miracle" and its fall it explains why China acts as it does on the world
stage.
For which
we must begin with the relationship between exports and imports and FDI,
through the data explaining the general situation, as in the following quote
(48):
"The
data summarized in Table 5 demonstrate the crucial role of the assembly
operations into global production networks in expanding exports of machinery
from China. The ratio of components in the overall import of machinery from
China increased from 32.5% in 1992/3 to 63.4% in 2004/5, with the import share
of the three ICT products * (** SITC 75, 76 and 77) recorded a much faster
growth. By contrast, the (total exports less components) final goods continue
to dominate the composition of exports. In the last decade, the percentage of
finished goods in total machinery exports has remained around 75%, with only
small changes from year to year. Given the fact that the production of parts
and components is usually more capital intensive - and final assembly
technology, these figures clearly show that China's export success so far has
been largely supported by its comparative advantage in the production
International. Semiconductors and microprocessors are what best exemplify
China's reliance on imported components. China has surpassed the United States
and Japan to become the world's largest market for semiconductors in large part
because they are assembled in electronics and technology products information
industry exported in large volumes. In 2004, imports from China accounted for
one third of global semiconductor production of 213 billion US-dollar (SIA
2005). If components, over 80% of total exports of Chinese-made exported by
China are not taken into account it may still be treated as derived from the
abundance of labor.In sum, the mere fact of rapid growth of assembled final goods exports in highly fragmented high-tech industries does not necessarily imply that China is rapidly gaining maturity as a sophisticated high-tech exporting country. In a context where international fragmentation of production is becoming a symbol of economic globalization, the classification of final commodities by factor intensity is not the same as the classification of the production process occurring in these countries by factor intensity. The ongoing process of production fragmentation and China’s increased integration into global production networks as an assembly center has opened up opportunities for other countries in the region to benefit from China’s rapid export expansion as participants in these networks. "
* Information and communication technology (ICT): information technology and communication.
** Standard International Trade Classification SITC: Standard International Trade Classification
On the
Chinese "comparative advantage" - the factor intensity, this is the
factor "abundance of labor", "low cost of the average wage"
- its outlook is not rosy, which explains very well the policy of the Chinese
revisionists to accelerate the expulsion of the rural population:
"The
population in China is simply too big and too rapidly aging for its economy to
continue growing as rapidly as before. Since over 50% of the population now
lives in cities, China is approaching what economists call "Lewis turning
point": that moment when the surplus labor in rural areas of a country
practically runs out. Such depletion is derived from both the intense migration
to cities over the past 2 decades and the diminished workforce, which has
shrunk due to the only-child policy ... "(49).
On the
"Chinese miracle" - FDI and "comparatively advantage”-, we read
in another report:
"According
to statistics, about 88 percent of high technology (HT) exports were produced
by foreign-invested firms in the China, suggesting that China has emerged as an
export platform not only for traditional labor intensive products, but also
high-technology goods.China has been recognized as the world's oldest factory for intensive labor product as toys, shoes, dresses, etc., and now emerges as a leading exporter of high technology goods. The high-tech industries are the sources of high-value added jobs "(50).
In the
quote above, we emphasize the role of FDI in high-tech exports and in a
subsequent quote we will see the importance of FDI in foreign trade and in the
whole Chinese economy.
In this
report, on the relationship of Chinese exports to the imperialist countries and
Chinese imports from the countries of Asia bureaucratic capitalism, the
following facts are mentioned:
"Empirical
analysis indicates that the impact of China’s ICT exports on the six Asian
exporters differ across countries and products. Singapore and Philippines
suffered the most when Chinese exports grew. These two countries were also
affected more severely by China’s expansion into the markets of both Japan and
the US. The Korean and Malaysian exports were also adversely affected.
Intensified competition from China’s rising ICT exports may be one of the
reasons for the shrinking market shares of these Asian countries. The
relocation of production capacity into China by the multinational enterprises
of these countries may be another reason. China has become an integral part of
the production network in Asia, and many multinational enterprises have
utilized China as their export platform to global markets. They import parts
and components in to China, assemble these intermediate inputs there, and
finally export the final products to the rest of world. Thus, the diminishing
market shares of these countries, even in association with the expansion of
Chinese exports, may be the result of the relocation of production rather than
the crowding-out effect. In fact, while China enjoys a huge ICT trade surplus
with the US and Japan, it also experiences deficits with respect to Korea,
Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand (Figure 3). The rising Chinese exports
apparently affected the exports of these countries negatively in the third
market, but enhanced their exports to China. The effect of rapid Chinese
exports on a particular country should be evaluated in a more comprehensive
framework."(51)
So what the
cited above report says is that the American and Japanese ICT companies moved
production to China, because of the comparative advantage offered, so the
export of the final goods grew from China to these imperialist countries and
also therefore decreased the intermediate inputs imports for ICT goods
production from these imperialist countries to Korea, Malaysia, Philippines and
Singapore, while the Chinese imports of these inputs from these same countries
of the Third World increased. About the production relocation to China or other
countries, including the Third World, we must keep in mind that this movement
is not in one way but also reverses.
To get an
accurate idea of Chinese economic development, it is important to consider not
only its "export success", but its relation to imports, content of
imported inputs to see if they express an internal development or is only an
intermediation. In addition, it serves to establish the weight that the Chinese
international trade has in its entire economy, "the sum of imports plus
exports of goods and services exceeds 70% of GDP". Which determines the
country´s tariff policy, "between 1992 and 2002 the average tariff
(weighted) decreased from 40.6% to 6.4%," according to an article published
in the "Journal Papers of the East"
from de UCM (52 ) .The revisionists don´t apply a protectionist economic
policy to develop its own industry, but economic openness.
In the same
article cited, we have a calculation of the sum of FDI, exports and abundant
and cheap labor; in comparison to the whole economy:
"Regarding
FDI, since the year 1993 that it exceeded 20,000 million, the inflow of foreign
investment has only grown more, reaching 72,400 million in 2005 (second largest
recipient), historical record, and an accumulated investment stock (until 2006)
of no less than 600,000 million (third worldwide). Among the factors that
attract international capital highlights its robust economic growth, the size
and potential of its domestic market, and especially its international
competitiveness in labor costs, given the abundant and cheap Chinese labor
(AFI, 2006, p . 33; ECLAC, 2006, p 54;. Bustelo, 2006a, p.1) .The foreign
businesses presence is so important in the Chinese economy that it generates 19%
of the total production (figure that increases to 33% if you take into account
the joint ventures), and almost 50% of foreign trade. According to official
estimates, foreign companies, representing only 3% of existing national
companies, contribute 28.5% of industrial added value, 20.5% of tax
revenues, 87, 9% of high-tech exports
and 58% of the Chinese exports "(53).
While
China, in about the same time, became the 5th capital exporter imperialist
country after France.There is no need for us to add more comments to these quotes about "China's export success", we just want to remind the reader the "Ornellas" study (54), quoted in part on the US imperialism hegemony, that made reference to the economic significance of the high-tech products export to China and, on "opportunities for other countries in the region," it is necessary to keep in mind what was described on bureaucratic capitalism and specifically on Southeast Asia.
Thus, in a
tough contest among them, a small number of large monopolistic octopus extend
their tentacles, their so called "networks" or chains, rivet ties
with new nodes or links, deepening the penetration and dominion of the farthest
corners of the terrestrial globe and thereby heightening the contradictions due
to the struggle among monopolies and the greater oppression and plunder of the
vast majority of the Earth´s population.
This
process occurred first and foremost in the automotive industry. Then, it
occurred in the production of intermediates for the subsequent production of
final electronics and telecommunications products. In this process the
production is no longer concentrated in a factory but has been dispersed into
its components, which are manufactured by affiliates or independent companies;
but subject to the large automotive or electronics companies, etc., as an
intra-sectorial production.
For
example, the big monopolies, directly or through banks, with state support,
organize small and medium companies to manufacture auto parts for major
automotive companies in Germany (suppliers), which are simply big capital
Agents (intra-sectorial or in many cases inter-sectorial commercial chain in a
country or the EU) . In other cases, some of these parts suppliers are also
monopolistic companies operating globally and intertwine with other monopolies,
as the German Bosh, who is testing a fully automatic car. Or again, components
or parts are made by different companies in different countries mainly from a
region of the world such as North America or the European Union (also
intra-sectorial international trade).
Another
example of this is the Volvo, based in Sweden, whose car parts are made in
different companies in different countries, almost all from Europe and some
from North America and a few from Japan.All of which is always under the general principle of the apparent decentralization for greater power centralization and concentration of the imperialist monopolies. As stated by Lenin, who also established that the competition, the struggle among the monopolies does not exclude agreements, compromises, entanglement, etc., among them. These partnerships and agreements take multiple ways to eliminate other from the market.
Specifically,
it " is presented as one way of production streamlining to cheapen costs
(mainly labor, leveraging the so called comparative advantage); another
“dispersion" economic factor has to do with the currencies course due to
the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary system in 1973 (anchored to the gold
standard monetary system) and the transition to a floating exchange rate
monetary system ("competitive monetary progress"); and the need for
wider markets for the " scale
economy ", the latter one was
observed by Chairman Gonzalo when studying the early '70s bureaucratic
capitalism , see above when referring to the Velasco government's fascist
economic policy. Large-scale production and profits maximization of the largest
monopolists that surpasses the national borders.
This
dispersion occurs through capital exports, like FDI; thus moving the production
of some intermediate inputs for final goods to some Third World countries. As
in the case at hand, transferring production mainly to Asia for their final
assembly in China and sold as cheap products, mainly for the imperialists
market in North America, Europe and Japan (because of the imperialism necessity
to keep a low wage in their countries, among other reasons).
Hübner observes in the cited work, in the part
referring to bureaucratic capitalism, about the European Union process:
"So it
could had been very attractive, as for example – due to the collapse of the
Bretton Woods world monetary system and the transition to a competitive
exchange rate despite the existence of the fixed- term currency market - for a
large number of companies to avoid the risks of monetary exchange rate through
the production localization in the same place of sale. With this, the potential
scale economies associated with the market size, could again be necessary and
give economic sense to the production dispersion process, where in the case of
small national economies or too small national economic spaces, dispersion is
the corporeal form taken by foreign direct investment, while in the case of
large national economic spaces- as you can think of in USA- must be easily
counted as a domestic investment "(55).
That is why
is false to argue that this "dispersion" process, which is considered by imperialism ´s
economists as the " globalization core" leads to a new international division of
labor, based on an independent industrialization of the Third World. They
generalize for the entire global economy, "as the main sign of globalization",
the particular domination form taken by the imperialist monopolies, mainly in a
region, ie in the regional market organized by the imperialist capital
exportation to Asia, under the control of US imperialism in closed dispute with Japanese imperialism,
follow by the other imperialists. While
in the NAFTA and EU countries, the intermediate products exports or 'vertical
production dispersion “has other features. But in any case, this process has
not only aggravated the imperialist oppression of the Third World countries who
remain debtors of imperialist finance capital and remain mainly raw material and industrial “maquila”
products exporters, intermediate inputs
that imperialism permits or drives. For as Lenin says. "... Naturally, the
country which exports the capital skims the cream" (56).
So, with
the so called “new international division of labor", imperialism´s
representatives, intended to hide the redoubled imperialist oppression of our
countries, but the reality busts in their face and after many digressions and
data to conceal the true sense all this, they will end up admitting in other
words, that this "scattering process" has led to concrete partition
of the world economic territory by the imperialist finance capital, as when he
says:
"The
result suggests the existence of three major groups of economies in the global
trade of intermediate products: NAFTA, EU and Asia including East Asia (Japan,
Korea and China) and ASEAN economies ..." (57). Which we will see
below in greater detail.
Lenin,
deeply permeated by the significance of these changes that were operating in
this historical stage, pointed out its historical sense as follows:
“Ownership
of shares, the relations between owners of private property "interlock in
a haphazard way". (what is now called vertical production dispersion to
form the global value chains, our note) (...) But underlying this interlocking,
its very base, are the changing social relations of production. When a big
enterprise assumes gigantic proportions, and, on the basis of an exact
computation of mass data, organizes according to plan the supply of (...) when
the raw materials are transported in a systematic and organized manner to the
most suitable places of production, when a single center directs all the
consecutive stages of processing the material right up to the manufacture of
numerous varieties of finished articles; when these products are distributed
according to a single plan among tens and hundreds of millions of consumers (…)
then it becomes evident that we have socialization of production, and not mere
"interlocking", that private economic and private property relations
constitute a shell which no longer fits its contents, a shell which must
inevitably decay if its removal is artificially delayed, a shell which may
remain in a state of decay for a fairly long period (if, at the worst, the cure
of the opportunist abscess is protracted), but which will inevitably be
removed"(58).
Imperialism
is decaying, sinking irretrievably worldwide and will inevitably be buried by
the global revolution through people's wars that will be fused into one great
stream, into a worldwide people's war.
(To Be
Continued)
_________________________________
Notes to
the notes:
41.
"(...) from 1980 to 2010, global FDI grew 21 times, while world trade
increased sixfold, respectively (Calculation based Authir report UNTAD
http://unctad.org). According to the estimates of international and consulting
firms institutions, India was recognized as one of the most preferred
investment in the world with China and the United States ... of 2005-2009,
destinations India ranked second in the list of most favored FDI after China
"countries. The above quote is from "Investment in the Indo-Korea
CEPA, Saon Ray and Neetika By Kaushal, edition of Korea-India Deepening
Partnership for the 21st Century, Editors Parthasarathi Shome & Choong Yong
Ahn, KIEP Korea Institute for International Economic Policy . Korean Economy in
Transition Toward an Advanced Economy: Prospects and Challenges by Choong Yong
Ahn and Kyttack Hong "
42. Korean
Economy in Transition Toward an Advanced Economy: Prospects and Challenges by
Choong Yong Ahn and Kyttack Hong, p. . 111 ff, from which we quote:
"Global
Balance of imbalances of the country. Most analysts now believe that the global
economic crisis of 2008 obviously had its roots in the financial crisis of the
90s, had deep structural roots in the persistent global economic imbalances.
These imbalances established a vicious unsustainable circle and, if not
corrected, the global economy will remain vulnerable to frequent clashes. The
key features of global imbalances can be summarized as follows.:
a. The US
economy, along with other major Western economies, has a deficit of large and
persistent current account, reflecting the weak domestic savings.
b. This
deficit corresponds to the surplus from three main channels: i. Emerging
markets, especially China, has excess savings and correspondingly large current
account surplus. ii. The oil-exporting countries are saturated with funds that
cannot absorb nationwide. They also have current account surplus and excess
savings.iii. To a lesser extent, metals exporting countries are in a similar
situation.
The US
current account, which measures the investment savings balance has been in
deficit since 1992-1997, thereafter their growth was modest but grew steadily,
reaching a peak of nearly 6% of GDP in 2006. The savings rate in the US fell
steadily in the following years. The financial system had the job of recycling
the money lenders. Inevitably, credit became cheaper and savings declined. In
the US, savings dropped from around 10% of disposable income in 1970 to 1%
after 2005%.
Therefore,
this is accompanied by a high demand for foreign exchange reserves. Many Asian
countries consider that although they have an excess of savings today, they
want to invest in foreign exchange reserves and do not have to deal with a
sudden capital flight as something similar to what is experienced in the 1990s
crisis.
The excess
savings in China is partly the result of China's exchange rate policy. Buying
large amounts of dollars serves to maintain weak the national currency,
promotes exports and reduce domestic spending. The result is a high level of
net national saving, much of which ends up in the central bank's foreign
reserves. The US, Britain and other deficit countries have shown a high
appetite for cheap credit from abroad.
All
countries that produce manufactured goods as China, or oil or metals, have
excess savings, which led them to seek ways of safe and liquid investment
abroad and national financial instruments are neither large nor sufficiently
developed to absorb such large amounts of savings in excess. Caballero (2011)
and Caballero, Farhi and Gourinchas (2008) have argued: that the emerging
countries cannot create enough trustworthy saving vehicles to keep up with the
pace of economic growth, financial markets are immature. So the United States
are largely preferred a wide range of liquid markets for titles destination.
Emerging markets need title insurance which has led them to export capital to
the US The interaction between the two proved fatal. Following a strong
external demand for AAA-rated assets, the financial system became creative.
Marginal home loans were packaged into securities supposedly safe. Credit
supply raised prices and stimulated a boom in residential construction, which
filled the gap in demand left by weak business investment.
These loans
went bad and accumulated losses. At the same time, banks had left very little
capital to protect themselves against unexpected losses, leaving banks
helplessly as when the race for the redemption of financial assets began. The
attraction for liquid capital inflows was because the US provides reliable and
liquid assets that cannot be found at home. This establishes a dynamic flow
where the surplus of a bloc serves to finance the deficits of others. The
problem is that persistent and large imbalances poses problems of
sustainability and recurrent falls. "
43.
"Causes of International Fragmentation of Production", Russel H.
Hillberry, University of Melbourne, on "Global Value Chain" in Trade
Policy Rechearch, Canada, 2011.
44. The
Wall Street Journal, October 1, 2013, p. 28.
45. Ruchir
Sharma *, "The BRIC fell down? Why "the world" stopped its
ascent? ". * Director of Emerging Markets and Global Macroeconomics at
Morgan Stanley Investment Management, and author of Breakout Nations: In
Pursuit of the Next Economic Miracles.
46.
"Act now! The Global Manifesto for the Salvation of the Economy "by
Flassbeck, Davidson, Galbraith and others, Editorial Westend, Frankfurt / Main
2013.
47. The
Wall Street Journal, quoted above.
48. Prema-chandra
Athukorala , April 2008, Working Paper No. 2008/04, The Arndt-Corden Division
of Economics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies ANU (Australian
National University College of Asia and the Pacific. P. 10
49. The
Brics fell down...?
50. Xing,
Yuqing, China's exports in ICT and Its impact on Asian countries country
(2008), Research paper / UNU-WIDER, No. 2008.39, ISBN 978-92-9230-087-6, p. 1.
51. Xing,
Yuqing (2008), cited above, p. 8 and 9.
52. Los
capitalism emergences en la nueva arquitectura internacional ¿ que hay de Nuevo
en la nueva division internacional del trabajo? Palazuelos, A, Revisa papeles
del Este, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (UCM), 2007, p. 11.
53. Up
above, p. 18.
54. Raúl
Ornelas* ,LA CRISIS CAPITALISTA, ¿FIN DE LA HEGEMONÍA ESTADOUNIDENSE? UN
ESTUDIO DESDE LA COMPETENCIA ENTRE EMPRESAS TRANSNACIONALES ,* This work is
part of research project PAPIIT "Transnational corporations and natural
resources in Latin America" (IN-306609-3).
55. Hübner,
op cit, p. 177.
56. Lenin,
op cit. p. 65.
57.
"Global Value Chain: Impacts and implications, Trade Policy Research
2011" Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada, Government of
Canada, 2011.
58. Lenin,
op. Cit. P. 86.